FOOTBALLSCIENCE.NET

Besides technical and tactical training, fitness plays a major role in the training schedule (depending on the time during the season, the level of play etc).

The following will describe basic guidelines to train for physical capacities such as aerobic- and anaerobic endurance, speed, agility/change of direction, and strength and power training.

Aerobic endurance training in football

Obviously, players need to be able to run at a high intensity for the entire period of a game and therefore training for aerobic endurance is essential.

Generally, we don’t want to comment on the “classical” debate “interval training vs. small-sided games (SSG)” (20) – see references below as we believe BOTH training modalities have its place – depending on the level of play of the team, staff involved, time and equipment available and coaching philosophy.

Besides interval training and SSG additional four possibilities to train for aerobic endurance can be added (15). Therefore coaches and S&C staff have a total of six modalities:
a) Interval training
b) Small-Sided Game
c) Game simulations
d) Football specific circuits
e) Repeated sprint
f) Speed and agility

A) Interval training

The beneficial aspects from interval training on aerobic endurance were reported in adult amateur (20), professional (69) and junior elite soccer players (8, 24, 27, 30, 59-61).

The running consisted of 4 x 4 sets at 90-95% (24, 30) of maximal heart rate with a 3 min jog in between, twice (8, 20, 24, 30, 60) or 3-4 (59) times per week for 4- (30), 5- (59), 6- (20), 7- (8), 8- (24, 30, 60) weeks. Changes were seen in a) VO2max, b) lactate threshold, c) running economy, d) distance covered (6.4-20%) in a match, e) number of sprints (100%), f) number of involvements with the ball (+24%), g) work intensity, h) 200-2400m-tests (4.2-7.9%) (29).

B) Small-Sided-Games (SSG)

SSG has many advantages over other conditioning formats (football specific movement, technical training, possible tactical improvements and it consist of high motivational factors to train) (37).

Results show improvements in aerobic endurance (26, 40), VO2max (13, 32), running velocity at lactate threshold (30), Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 2 performance (32), repeated sprint ability (32) and also change of direction performance (19).

Disadvantages of SSG are: It is harder to control the intensity (36), heart rate responses were less homogeneous (24), the activity of the players were different due to position, the opponents and/or their motivation (62), lower when goalies were included (2) AND fitter player covered more distance during SSG (18), which shows that SSG must not be the one-and-only conditioning solution.

C) Game simulations

To our knowledge, modeling of football matches have occurred throughout the literature (53, 65), however it seems there has not been an attempt to use it as a training tool to improve aerobic endurance in football.

D) Football circuits

Aerobic endurance was trained utilizing a football circuit in youth (13, 44) professional football players (28) in which player had to dribble a ball.

The duration and intensity was set to 4 minutes at 90-95% of maximal heart rate. Four sets with 3 minutes of recovery jog at 70% of maximal heart rate were performed. Improvements were seen in VO2max after a total of 20 training sessions (two training sessions/week for ten weeks).

E) Repeated sprinting

Repeated sprint ability is a very important part of the game, its development affected by age, position and playing time (11, 46). Generally repeated sprinting is characterized by several sprints (such as 6 x 40m) interspersed with a brief (5-120 seconds and therefore incomplete) recovery period.

Such activity was moderately (6) correlated with aerobic endurance (16, 44, 49, 58) and reported to be similar to metabolic responses in a football match (8).

Several studies reported improvements in aerobic endurance through repeated sprint training (9, 12, 17, 22, 35, 39, 54, 64).

Repeates sprint ability was also investigated in youth football showing possible connection to trainability of aerobic endurance in youth footballers (64).

Note: The majority of literature on repeated sprint ability was on a mixed population and not necessarily on high profile football players (64)

F) Speed and agility

To the best of our knowledge, we have only found one study that investigated speed and agility training and its effect on aerobic endurance (10). The authors presented a moderate impact in professional handball players.

Summary

The following table presents how the different modalities train each other (15):

Also, the table provides insight into senior football only (age 18 and above). Youth training will depend on maturation and consequences for different training methods apply.

Anaerobic endurance training in footballTraining players‘ anaerobic endurance

Anaerobic endurance is generally trained in repeated sprint setting. Heavily debated content within repeated sprint training are:

  • Work to rest ratio (1, 38, 51, 52)
  • Active vs. passive recovery (57)

Training intervention was 6 (17) or 10 (64) weeks with a training frequency of 1 (64), 2-3 (17) training sessions/week and a work to rest ratio of 1:4 – 1:6 for sprints of 30-80 m in length (17, 64).

Improvements were seen in 40 meter sprint time (64), repeated sprint performance (64), VO2max and also a proportional increase in type II muscle fiber type (17).

With regard to youth, training seemed to be successfully implemented after peak height velocity (PHV). Generally repeated sprint ability seemed to develop with age, training (11), however physiological foundations are developed during/after puberty, as the results in repeated sprinting in different age groups were less variable from age 15-18 (49, 58) and differences with between age groups disappeared after controlling for age at peak height velocity (45).

However, we believe that anaerobic endurance can also be trained in a “better” football specific setting.

Speed training in football

To the best of our knowledge,  we have only found one study that investigated speed and agility training and its effect on aerobic endurance (10). The authors presented a moderate impact in professional handball players.

Strength training in football

Similar to aerobic endurance and depending on the competition level of the team, staff, time and equipment availability and personal philosophy, strength training might not be the highest priority in a training schedule.

However we believe that it plays a major role in injury prevention (3, 5, 34, 48) and can aid improving (football) performance (14, 33, 42, 50, 55, 56, 66) in adults (5, 14, 33, 34, 48, 55, 56, 66) and female youth players (23, 41). From a practical point of view we want to distinguish between:

  • on pitch
  • gym-based strength training

for legs, core, and shoulder

Flexibility training in football

Flexibility (in general) training seems to be a topic that is underestimated in performance, improving performance and injury prevention.

Flexibility can be seen/measured as Range of Motion (ROM) and it displays the degree of movement that occurs at a joint (7). As Baechle and Earle stated (53) the ROM of a particular joint is determined by a number of factors such as connective tissue structure, activity level of the player, age and gender.

Furthermore, the ROM is specific to each joint’s anatomy, the movements required at that joint and ultimately the requirements of football.

Flexibility has static and dynamic component and the relationship between the two types of flexibility is unresolved.

Static flexibility…
…is the passive ROM about a joint and its surrounding muscles.

Dynamic flexibility…
…refers to the available ROM during active movements and therefore requires voluntary muscular actions (31).

As suggested earlier, each sport has its own specific flexibility that is related to the movements in the sport. Therefore, football requires a specific flexibility that is related to football specific movements (21, 63).

Importance of flexibility

An increase in flexibility and therefore in ROM might support greater force production but more importantly seem to reduce injury risk (3, 4, 25, 67, 68).

Ways to improve flexibility
As flexibility is usually be improved through stretching we would like to further refer to the section stretching.

References

  1. Abt, G., Siegler, J.C., Akubat, I., and Castagna, C. The effects of a constant sprint-to-rest ratio and recovery mode on repeated sprint performance. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 25: 1695-1702, 2011.
  1. Allen, J.D., Buttefly, R., Welsh, M.A., and Wood, R. The physical and physiological value of 5-a-side soccer training to 11-a-side match play. J. Human. Mov. Stud. 34: 1-11, 1998.
  1. Arnason, A., Andersen, T.E., Holme, I., Engebretsen, L., and Bahr, R. Prevention of hamstring strains in elite soccer: an intervention study. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 18: 40-48, 2008.
  1. Arnason, A., Sigurdsson, S.B., Gudmundsson, A., Holme, I., Engebretsen, L., and Bahr, R. Risk factors for injuries in football. Am. J. Sports. Med. 32: 5S-16S, 2004.
  1. Askling, C., Karlsson, J., and Thorstensson, A. Hamstring injury occurrence in elite soccer players after preseason strength training with eccentric overload. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 13: 244-250, 2003.
  1. Aziz, A.R., Mukherjee, S., Chia, M.Y., and Teh, K.C. Relationship between measured maximal oxygen uptake and aerobic endurance performance with running repeated sprint ability in young elite soccer players. J. Sports. Med. Phys. Fitness. 47: 401-407, 2007.
  1. Baechle, T.R. and Earle, R.W. Resistance training, in: Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. Baechle, T.R., Earle, R.W., Wathen, D., eds. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008.
  1. Bravo, D.F., Impellizzeri, F.M., Rampinini, E., Castagna, C., Bishop, D., and Wisløff, U. Sprint vs. interval training in football. Int. J. Sports. Med. 29: 668-674, 2007.
  1. Buchheit, M., Mendez-Villanueva, A., Delhomel, G., Brughelli, M., and Ahmaidi, S. Improving repeated sprint ability in young elite soccer players: repeated shuttle sprints vs. explosive strength training. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 24: 2715-2722, 2010.
  1. Buchheit, M., Mendez-Villanueva, A., Quod, M., Quesnel, T., and Ahmaidi, S. Improving acceleration and repeated sprint ability in well-trained adolescent handball players: speed versus sprint interval training. Int. J. Sports. Physiol. Perform. 5: 152-164, 2010.
  1. Buchheit, M., Mendez-villanueva, A., Simpson, B.M., and Bourdon, P.C. Repeated-sprint sequences during youth soccer matches. Int. J. Sports. Med. 31: 709-716, 2010.
  1. Burgomaster, K.A., Hughes, S.C., Heigenhauser, G.J., Bradwell, S.N., and Gibala, M.J. Six sessions of sprint interval training increases muscle oxidative potential and cycle endurance capacity in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 98: 1985-1990, 2005.
  1. Chamari, K., Hachana, Y., Kaouech, F., Jeddi, R., Chamari-Moussa, I., and Wisløff. Endurance training and testing with the ball in young elite soccer players. Br. J. Sports. Med. 39: 24-28, 2005.
  1. Christou, M., Smilios, I., Sotiropoulos, K., Volaklis, K., Pilianidis, T., and Tokmakidis, S.P. Effects of resistance training on the physical capacities of adolescent soccer players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 20: 783-791, 2006.
  1. Coutts, A. The assessment – Programme connect: metabolicconditioning, in: 1st SPRINZ Strength and Conditioning Conference. Auckland, NZ, 2010.
  1. da Silva, J.F., Guglielmo, L.G., and Bishop, D. Relationship between different measures of aerobic fitness and repeated sprint ability in elite soccer players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 24: 2115-2121, 2010.
  1. Dawson, B., Fitzsimons, M., Green, S., Goodman, C., Carey, M., and Cole, K. Changes in performance, muscle metabolites, enzymes and fibre types after short sprint training. Europ. J. Appl. Physiol. 78: 163-169, 1998.
  1. Dellal, A., Hill-Haas, S., Lago-Penas, C., and Chamari, K.Small-sided games in soccer: Amateur vs. professional players‘ physiological responses, physical, and technical activities. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 25: 2371-2381, 2011.
  1. Dellal, A., Varliette, C., Owen, A., Chirico, E., and Pialoux, V. Small-sided games in soccer: amateur vs. professional players‘ physiological responses, physical, and technical activities. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 25: 2371-2381, 2011.
  1. Dellal, A., Varliette, C., Owen, A., Chirico, E., and Pialoux, V. Small-sided games vs. interval training in amateur soccer players: effects on the aerobic capacity and the ability to perform intermittent exercises with changes of direction. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 26: 2712-2720, 2012.
  1. Gleim, G.W. and McHugh, M.P. Flexibility and its effects on sports injury and performance. Sports. Med. 24: 289-299, 1997.
  1. Harmer, A.R., McKenna, M.J., Sutton, J.R., Snow, R.J., Ruell, P.A., Booth, J., Thompson, M.W., Mackay, N.A., Stathis, C.G., Crameri, R.M., Carey, M.F., and Eager, D.M. Skeletal muscle metabolic and ionic adaptations during intense exercise following sprint training in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 89: 1793-1803, 2000.
  1. Heidt, R.S., Jr., Sweeterman, L.M., Carlonas, R.L., Traub, J.A., and Tekulve, F.X. Avoidance of soccer injuries with preseason conditioning. Am. J. Sports. Med. 28: 659-662, 2000.
  1. Helgerud, J., Engen, L.C., Wisloff, U., and Hoff, J. Aerobic endurance training improves soccer performance. Med. Sci. Sports. Exerc. 33: 1925-1931, 2001.
  1. Henderson, G., Barnes, C.A., and Portas, M.D. Factors associated with increased propensity for hamstring injury in English Premier League soccer players. J. Sci. Med. Sport. 13: 397-402, 2010.
  1. Hill-Haas, S.V., Coutts, A.J., Rowsell, G.J., and Dawson, B.T. Generic versus small-sided game training in soccer. Int. J. Sports. Med. 30: 636-642, 2009.
  1. Hoff, J. and Helgerud, J. Endurance and strength training for soccer players: Physiological considerations. Sports. Med. 34: 165-180, 2004.
  1. Hoff, J., Wisloff, U., Engen, L.C., Kemi, O.J., and Helgerud, J. Soccer specific aerobic endurance training. Br J Sports Med 36: 218-221, 2002.
  1. Iaia, F.M., Rampinini, E., and Bangsbo, J. High-intensity training in football. Int. J. Sports. Physiol. Perform. 4: 291-306, 2009.
  1. Impellizzeri, F.M., Marcora, S.M., Castagna, C., Reilly, T., Sassi, A., Iaia, F.M., and Rampinini, E. Physiological and performance effects of generic versus specific aerobic training in soccer players. Int. J. Sports. Med. 27: 483-492, 2006.
  1. Jeffreys, I. Warm-up and stretching, in: Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. Baechle, T.R., Earle, R.W., eds. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008, pp 296-324.
  1. Jensen, J.M., Randers, M.B., Krustrup, P., and Bangsbo, J. Effect of additional in-season aerobic high-intensity drills on physical fitness of elite football players. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine Suppl 10: 79, 2007.
  1. Kotzamanidis, C., Chatzopoulos, D., Michailidis, C., Papalakovou, G., and Patikas, D. The effect of a combined high-intensity strength and speed training program on the running and jumping ability of soccer players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 19: 369-375, 2005.
  1. Lehnhard, R.A., Lehnhard, H.R., Young, R., and Butterfield, S.A. Monitoring injuries on a college soccer team: The effect of strength training. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 10: 115-119, 1996.
  1. Linossier, M.T., Dormois, D., Geyssant, A., and Denis, C. Performance and fibre characteristics of human skeletal muscle during short sprint training and detraining on a cycle ergometer. Europ. J. Appl. Physiol. 75: 491-498, 1997.
  1. Little, T. Optimizing the use of soccer drills for physiological development. Strength. Cond. J. 31: 67-74, 2009.
  1. Little, T. and Williams, A.G. Suitability of soccer training drills for endurance training. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 20: 316-319, 2006.
  1. Little, T. and Williams, A.G. Effects of sprint duration and exercise: rest ratio on repeated sprint performance and physiological responses in professional soccer players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 21: 646-648, 2007.
  1. MacDougall, J.D., Hicks, A.L., MacDonald, J.R., McKelvie, R.S., Green, H.J., and Smith, K.M. Muscle performance and enzymatic adaptations to sprint interval training. J. Appl. Physiol. 84: 2138-2142, 1998.
  1. Mallo, J. and Navarro, E. Physical load imposed on soccer players during small-sided training games. J. Sports. Med. Phys. Fitness. 48: 166-171, 2008.
  1. Mandelbaum, B.R., Silvers, H.J., Watanabe, D.S., Knarr, J.F., Thomas, S.D., Griffin, L.Y., Kirkendall, D.T., and Garrett, W., Jr. Effectiveness of a neuromuscular and proprioceptive training program in preventing anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female athletes: 2-year follow-up. Am. J. Sports. Med. 33: 1003-1010, 2005.
  1. Manolopoulos, E., Papadopoulos, C., and Kellis, E. Effects of combined strength and kick coordination training on soccer kick biomechanics in amateur players. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 16: 102-110, 2006.
  1. McMillan, K., Helgerud, J., Macdonald, R., and Hoff, J. Physiological adaptations to soccer specific endurance training in professional youth soccer players. Br. J. Sports. Med. 39: 273-277, 2005.
  1. Meckel, Y., Machnai, O., and Eliakim, A. Relationship among repeated sprint tests, aerobic fitness, and anaerobic fitness in elite adolescent soccer players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 23: 163-169, 2009.
  1. Mendez-Villanueva, A., Buchheit, M., Kuitunen, S., Douglas, A., Peltola, E., and Bourdon, P. Age-related differences in acceleration, maximum running speed, and repeated-sprint performance in young soccer players. J. Sports Sci. 29: 477-484, 2011.
  1. Mendez-Villanueva, A., Buchheit, M., Kuitunen, S., Poon, T.K., Simpson, B., and Peltola, E. Is the relationship between sprinting and maximal aerobic speeds in young soccer players affected by maturation? Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 22: 497-510, 2010.
  1. Meylan, C. and Malatesta, D. Effects of in-season plyometric training within soccer practice on explosive actions of young players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 23: 2605-2613, 2009.
  1. Mjolsnes, R., Arnason, A., Osthagen, T., Raastad, T., and Bahr, R. A. 10-week randomized trial comparing eccentric vs. concentric hamstring strength training in well-trained soccer players. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 14: 311-317, 2004.
  1. Mujika, I., Spencer, M., Santiseban, J., and Bishop, D. Age-related differences in repeated-sprint ability in highly trained youth football players. J. Sports. Sci. 1-10, 2010.
  1. Perez-Gomez, J., Olmedillas, H., Delgado-Guerra, S., Ara, I., Vicente-Rodriguez, G., Ortiz, R.A., Chavarren, J., and Calbet, J.A. Effects of weight lifting training combined with plyometric exercises on physical fitness, body composition, and knee extension velocity during kicking in football. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 33: 501-510, 2008.
  1. Price, M. and Halabi, K. The effects of work-rest duration on intermittent exercise and subsequent performance. J Sports Sci 23: 835-842, 2005.
  1. Price, M. and Moss, P. The effects of work:rest duration on physiological and perceptual responses during intermittent exercise and performance. J Sports Sci 25: 1613-1621, 2007.
  1. Robineau, J., Jouaux, T., Lacroix, M., and Babault, N. Neuromuscular fatigue induced by a 90-minute soccer game modeling. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 26: 555-562, 2012.
  1. Rodas, G., Ventura, J.L., Cadefau, J.A., Cusso, R., and Parra, J. A. short training programme for the rapid improvement of both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. Eur J Appl Physiol 82: 480-486, 2000.
  1. Ronnestad, B.R., Kvamme, N.H., Sunde, A., and Raastad, T. Short-term effects of strength and plyometric training on sprint and jump performance in professional soccer players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 22: 773-780, 2008.
  1. Ronnestad, B.R., Nymark, B.S., and Raastad, T. Effects of In-season Strength Maintenance Training Frequency in Professional Soccer Players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 25: 2653-2660, 2011.
  1. Spencer, M., Dawson, B., Goodman, C., Dascombe, B., and Bishop, D. Performance and metabolism in repeated sprint exercise: effect of recovery intensity. Eur J Appl Physiol 103: 545-552, 2008.
  1. Spencer, M., Pyne, D., Santisteban, J., and Mujika, I. Fitness determinants of repeated-sprint ability in highly trained youth football players. Int. J. Sports. Physiol. Perform. 6: 497-508, 2011.
  1. Sperlich, B., De Marees, M., Koehler, K., Linville, J., Holmberg, H.C., and Mester, J. Effects of 5 Weeks‘ High-Intensity Interval Training vs. Volume Training in 14-Year-Old Soccer Players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 25: 1271-1278, 2011.
  1. Sporis, G., Ruzic, L., and Leko, G. The anaerobic endurance of elite soccer players improved after a high-intensity training intervention in the 8-week conditioning program. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 22: 559-566, 2008.
  1. Sporis, G., Ruzic, L., and Leko, G. Effects of a new experimental training program on VO2max and running performance. J. Sports. Med. Phys. Fitness. 48: 158-165, 2008.
  1. Stolen, T., Chamari, K., Castagna, C., and Wisloff, U Physiology of soccer: an update. Sports. Med. 35: 501-536, 2005.
  1. Thacker, S.B., Gilchrist, J., Stroup, D.F., and Kimsey, C.D., Jr. The impact of stretching on sports injury risk: a systematic review of the literature. Med. Sci. Sports. Exerc. 36: 371-378, 2004.
  1. Tonnessen, E., Shalfawi, S.A., Haugen, T., and Enoksen, E. The effect of 40-m repeated sprint training on maximum sprinting speed, repeated sprint speed endurance, vertical jump, and aerobic capacity in young elite male soccer players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 25: 2364-2370, 2011.
  1. Wilkinson, D.M., Garner, J., Fallowfield, J.L., and Harrison, J.J.H. The influence of carhohydrate ingestion on repeated sprint performance during a simulated soccer match, in: Science and Football. Reilly, T., Bangsbo, J., Hughes, M., eds. Cornwall: Taylor & Francis Group, 2002.
  1. Wisløff, U., Castagna, C., Helgerud, J., Jones, R., and Hoff, J. Strong correlation of maximal squat strength with sprint performance and vertical jump height in elite soccer players. Br. J. Sports. Med. 38: 285-288, 2004.
  1. Witvrouw, E., Danneels, L., Asselman, P., D’Have, T., and Cambier, D. Muscle flexibility as a risk factor for developing muscle injuries in male professional soccer players. A prospective study. Am. J. Sports. Med. 31: 41-46, 2003.
  1. Witvrouw, E., Mahieu, N., Danneels, L., and McNair, P. Stretching and injury prevention: An obscure relationship. Sports. Med. 34: 443-449, 2004.
  1. Wong, P.L., Chaouachi, A., Chamari, K., Dellal, A., and Wisloff, U. Effect of preseason concurrent muscular strength and high-intensity interval training in professional soccer players. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 24: 653-660, 2010.